Acquired Brain Injury ( Abi ) - 2419 Words

Acquired brain injury (ABI) is any brain injury that occurs after birth and is not related to a congenital or a degenerative disease1. A variety of events or conditions can cause ABI, with traumatic brain injury (TBI) being one of them. TBI is used to describe all injuries to the brain caused by an external force. ABI is relatively common in Australia, and South Australia has the third highest prevalence, with around 2.2% of the South Australian2 population living with an ABI compared with the Australian average of 1.9% of the population3. Across Australia, the lifetime cost for moderate and severe traumatic brain injury per incident case was estimated to be $2.5million and $4.8million respectively4. The Aboriginal and Torres Strait†¦show more content†¦Individuals with ongoing deficits require the ability to access both specialist and maintenance care options throughout their lifespan. Although a lack of high-quality data limits an accurate assessment of the health dispa rities between indigenous and nonindigenous populations in many countries, the disparity between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians health status and care has been widely documented6. The causes of the health status inequalities are multi-factorial; with the major contributors related to social and environmental determinants of indigenous health7. Cultural security One method that has been suggested to reduce these disparities in indigenous health status is by providing culturally appropriate services. Unfortunately, the existing health services are not well structured to meet the needs of Aboriginal Australians. Cultural competence is an important foundation for effective clinical and patient centred care. It focuses on the capacity of the health system to improve health and wellbeing by integrating culture into the delivery of health services. Then there is cultural safety, which provides an environment that is safe for the receiver of care8. This is comparable to clinical safety, which allows the patient to feel safe in health care interactions and be involved in changes to health services, without being denied of their identity, or who they are. Whereas, cultural security

What Makes A Business Person Violates The Golden Rule

Throughout history, many buzzwords have been used to describe the primary focus of businesses. Milton Friedman first said that a company’s main goal is to make a â€Å"profit† (Plenert, 1995). Focus then shifted to â€Å"productivity† and â€Å"quality† when China and Japan emerged as industry leaders (Plenert, 1995). Attention is now geared towards the idea of corporate social responsibility and ethics, even though, the golden rule has guided moral behavior for thousands of years. The rule simply says, â€Å"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you† (Suranovic, 2001). If a person does not follow the golden rule, their actions are considered unjust, immoral, and sinful. The rule is found and followed in all the major religions of the world, but there is much debate on whether the rule is followed in the world of business. Whether a business person violates the golden rule depends upon one’s definition of a â€Å"good† business person. Most people would consider a good business person to be someone who is successful and rich. However, success and making money does not solely define a good business person. There are other characteristics to consider such as integrity. A good business person has both personal and professional integrity. This person is not afraid to ask for help or admit when they make mistakes (Ingram). This person conducts him or herself in a respectable manner by always acting fairly and ethically. Acting ethically, as implied by the golden rule, is aShow MoreRelatedThe Travel Expense Billing Controversy1411 Words   |  6 Pagesmorality of a people, an organization, a culture, or a society. [†¦] It focuses on â€Å"what is† the prevailing set of ethical standards in the business community, specific organizations, or on the part of specific managers. [†¦] Normative ethics is concerned with supplying and justifying a coherent moral system of thinking and ju dging. 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Happening in the time eminently known as the golden age of piracy, their brave advances in sea robbery facilitated the gradual demise of sea hijacking and theft on the deep seas.1 There is no sufficient information to provide a reliable picture about the life of Blackbeard except three years to his

Organisational Governance and Leadership Diagnostic Tools

Question: Discuss about the Organisational Governance and Leadershipfor Diagnostic Tools. Answer: Self Analysis and Reflection Analysing Self-Competence through Diagnostic Tools I have measured the self-reflection purposes by using the proper diagnostic tools that have provided the insightful knowledge about self-potentiality. At the first place, I have used the Quinn Questionnaire as the former diagnostic tool that has pointed out my capabilities in different aspects. Firstly, as a director in an organisation, I have gained 100% score. It indicates that I make the clarified approaches in planning and establishing the justified targets. As a director, I am a good communicator, listener, and monitor. During any adverse scenario, I prefer to understand the explained problem and the source of such conflicts. After a precise definition of the problem, I would like to select the alternative and accordingly preach the relevant decisions to be undertaken. I would gather the employees together to formulate a team. I am quite efficient at encouraging cooperation, achieving coherence, and resolving conflicts. I am capable of applying the conflict handling techniques t o resolve the emerging issues and establish a comfortable working scenario. As an efficient mentor, I am always much focused about the employee development. I am much helpful, sensitive, caring, open, and approachable with my teammates and other people in the organisation. I appreciate the efforts provided by the associated workforce and recognise their capabilities to reward them in receiving the fruitful outcome. I believe in work ethics, which are essentially needed to be maintained within an organisation. However, on the other hand, the emotional intelligence diagnostic tool is also pointing out that I am much cooperative with my co-workers. I accumulate the ideas derived from other associates and then implement those ideas before taking any organisational decisions. It helps me in identifying the innovative business operational process. Moreover, it helps in generating the sense of reliability and motivation among the associated employees. This attribute is quite beneficial for me to enhance self-confidence. As an innovator, I am more focused on gathered ideas and implement those ideas to promote an inspiring working environment. I am an effective coordinator and encourage the associated team members to come forward and formulate a group discussion. It helps me in gathering the concerns of my colleagues and accordingly structuring the organisational functionalities. However, at the initial stage, I lacked enough self-confidence, which was the major obstacle in achieving the determined goals. There are two major incidents took place, and these events transformed my perceptions completely. Challenging Experiences There was an incident when I faced challenges in resolving the conflicts occurred between my team members. At the initial stage, I perceived that I should not be concerned about the small conflicts, which could have solved easily. I started ignoring the issues. However, with time, I have recognised that the conflicts were getting longer and started affecting the performance of the associates. It was quite disappointing for me that I ignored the situation due to lack of self-confidence. However, I decided to confront each of the employees and know their concerns. After listening to both the parties, I started thinking about the situations and understanding the possible solutions. In fact, I took advice from other associates as well and used my capabilities to select the relevant decision that can resolve the issues. I was quite surprised to see that this procedure worked well for me. The use of self-confidence generates the effective outcome that was quite beneficial in resolving the issues. One more experience that I faced while dealing with one of the industrial partners, also left me in confusion. One of our business clients provided a very short schedule to complete a major project. The deadline was very short, and it was quite difficult to complete the entire project within a very short span of time. However, the client was very important for me since we receive many profitable investments from the client for the business purposes. During such situation, I started to think the possible solution of completing this task. I arranged the team meeting and addressed the scenario to the associates. I tried to explain the situation and started identifying the potentiality of the members. I must appreciate the response that I derived from my teammates. They were ready to work for extra hours to complete this vital project. The most generous thing that struck me here is the faith that my teammates had on me. I think I could establish the sense of reliability for which they ar e prepared to invest their extra time to complete this project. I tried to identify the expertise of the associated employees and divided the task as per their capabilities. It was quite helpful in reducing the stress level. Moreover, when the people received the works as per their expertise, it became easier for them to complete it within the allocated time. It was quite amusing to me that I completed the entire project within the given deadline. In fact, the client was very satisfied with the outcome. The incident was quite memorable, inspiring, challenging, and effective enough for the lifetime experience. Comparing the Outcome with the Diagnosed Result If I compare the outcomes derived from these two different situations with the reports extracted through the diagnostic tools, I can state that I have the appreciable capability of communicating with my teammates. I used the self-confidence level while communicating with the teammates. I learned that establishing the communicational transparency clarifies the issue more significantly. When the situation is described with proper clarifications, it becomes helpful to generate the ideas about the probable solutions. Applying this method, I started using my competency skills and accomplished my determined target. In fact, I received the expected outcomes that strengthened self-confidence level. I am quite focused on maintaining my responsibilities. I prefer to put the associated members on my priority list and pay attention to their welfare aspect. It is quite inspiring for others to fix their future goals and complete them within time. Literature Review Concept of Self-Confidence Self-confidence works as the influential regulators and motivators of the peoples behaviour in the regular lives (Peng, Schaubroeck Xie 2015). It is evident that the self-confidence forms when one person is capable of presenting the self-potentiality in achieving any determined motto (Krizan, 2014). However, self-confidence is subjected more as the judgment of capabilities of a person instead of presented as the motivational perspectives (Khan Ahmad, 2012). It is sometimes even determined as the broader conceptualisation of motivation, which helps in accomplishing the goals. It is to be stated that motivation is generated by focusing on two most relevant aspects. The first aspect is the selection of the goals, and the second is the establishment of self-regulations (Daft, 2014). It is important to state that confidence is learned and it is not inherited. Many of the people suffer due to the lack of self-confidence that prevents them from taking the significant actions required for moving forward. Sometimes people are criticized or unappreciated. It brings the sense of inferiority to some of the extents. On the contrary, confident people have faith on self-capability, which helps them shaping their better future and prepare them to face every consequence (Seligman Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Therefore, it is the necessary behavioural aspect that each one needs to possess and use wisely. Self-confidence is considered as the cornerstone of the leadership attribute (Cuddy, Kohut Neffinger, 2013). One cannot emerge as a great leader if the person lacks self-confidence. An efficient leader can learn to be an effective problem solver, communicator, or a decisive person. Moreover, one can even teach the leader the method of lead, coach, or mentor (Goffee Jones, 2013). The interpersonal skills of the leaders drive the employee towards a positive result. However, no one can generate the sense of self-confidence within one. It is necessary to gain the self-confidence to perform the responsibility in a significant manner. The employees need to feel a sense of comfort while working together under the leader. A leader, who is qualified for his position, needs to value the self-capability first (Morony et al., 2013). Self Confidence is considered as the fundamental basis, which is helpful in growing the leadership capabilities (Travers, Morisano Locke, 2015). The lack of confi dence will be difficult for the leaders to lead the members towards the positive focus. Self Confidence in Leadership In some of the cases, people perceive that the over-aggressive leaders are full of self-confidence. If concentrated on the true concept, it can be stated that if one leader is much confident, the person does not require being over-aggressive to accomplish the determine goals. The associated organisational members become much interested in working with a leader who has the inspiring level of self-confidence. A confident leader takes risks and brings out the innovative process to finish any particular task. Moreover, the leaders with full of self-confidence motivate the other employees in generating more confident (Goleman, Boyatzis McKee, 2013). It is one of the natural tendencies of trusting people with high level of self-confidence. Hence, it can be inferred that each of the leaders needs to have the enough self-confidence to deal with the situational events or undertaking any challenging decision (Steinbauer et al., 2014). In the real scenario, it is noticed that the self-confidence is more important than the skills, ability, and experiences. When a leader shows the confidence level by focusing on the positive sides, it generates the sense of trust among the associated employees. People are more interested in working with a person who is trustworthy (Leroy et al., 2015). However, the self-analysis and reflection depend on several major competencies, such as read, ask, watch, feel, talk, and think (Van der Kam et al., 2014). The confident derives from learning, thinking, and judging the situation. Developing a clear understanding is necessary for the self-analysis purposes. Even when the leaders face the trouble, they become reluctant to express it to others. They always form a persona that leads towards the positive approach of dealing with the challenging scenario (Baumeister, 2013). Challenges Faced Due to Lack of Self-Confidence In an organisational context, the emergence of situational conflicts is quite frequent. If any leader lacks self-confidence, it becomes much difficult to survive in the organisation. However, in many of the cases, some of the leaders appear to be over-confident and show their aggressiveness in every situation (Ortiz-Ordoez, Stoller Remmele, 2015). The leaders who have such aggressive and tyrannical attitudes formulate the poor workplace. The other associated members become reluctant to work with such leaders. Hence, the over-confidence level is not necessary for managing the people at the workplace. The leaders need to inspire the employees by ensuring the proper use of confidence level. The leaders need to communicate more to understand the scenario at the initial stage (Schnabel, Kelava van de Vijver, 2016). Accordingly, the application of the self-potentiality wisely would be preferable enough in accomplishing the goals. Action Plan It is one of the proud moments for me when I receive the appreciation from my team mates and other employees. The individuals are quite satisfied with my optimistic behaviour. If I concentrate on the events I faced previously, it shows that during the emergence of any situation I felt a bit of insecurity and fear. However, considering such situation, I have developed a sequential action plan, which will be helpful for my future growth. Embracing the Change I understand that change is inevitable and sometimes become much uncomfortable. From a psychological perspective, I can state that accepting the change introduces with the growth opportunity by confronting a different scenario. I have realised that I feel discomfort when I face a completely new situation. However, I need to embrace the change by increasing my self-confidence. It will lead me towards more innovative ways of dealing with the situational consequences. Hence, I should move forward in accepting the changes. Listing up the Areas of Improvement It is essential for me to figure out the exact area where I lack the self-confidence more specifically. I need to prepare a list of these areas, which need more improvisation to bring out the best outcomes. Accordingly, I need to make the necessary adjustments as per the needs. Determining the Beliefs that Surround the Areas of Concerns Sometimes, I feel, if I say something wrong, it may become offensive to others. This concern is signifying that I am not comfortable enough with the surrounding. I need to figure out such examples of concerned areas that are making me more uncomfortable to deal with other associates. Seeking a mentor Sometimes, the concerns I found in myself may create the frustrating scenario. In such times, I should consult a mentor from whom I can receive the proper guidance and advice. Consulting a person who is comfortable in an area where I lack the self-confidence will be much helpful in clarifying my priorities. Learning is the better choice for me to build my self-confidence wisely. Taking the First Initiative The first move towards success is always small, but it provides the assurance of taking the initiative. I should start strengthening the communication skills and exploring the competency level more significantly. Tracking the Progress Tracking the progress is essential for each one of us. When I realised that I need to make the adjustments by concentrating on my weakness, I accordingly need to keep track of the progress. It is necessary for me to measure whether I can develop my skills for future progress. These steps are effective enough in shaping my morale and value. If I can apply these steps in real life, it will help me in enhancing the self-confidence with proper ease. In fact, I can guide others to be more confident in both personal and professional lives. References Baumeister, R. F. (Ed.). (2013).Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard. Springer Science Business Media. Cuddy, A. J., Kohut, M., Neffinger, J. (2013). Connect, then lead.Harvard Business Review,91(7), 54-61. Daft, R. L. (2014).The leadership experience. Cengage Learning. Goffee, R., Jones, G. (2013).Clever: Leading your smartest, most creative people. Harvard Business Press. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., McKee, A. (2013).Primal leadership: Unleashing the power of emotional intelligence. Harvard Business Press. Khan, A., Ahmad, W. (2012). Leader's interpersonal skills and its effectiveness at different levels of management.International Journal of Business and Social Science,3(4). Leroy, H., Anseel, F., Gardner, W. L., Sels, L. (2015). Authentic Leadership, Authentic Followership, Basic Need Satisfaction, and Work Role Performance A Cross-Level Study.Journal of Management,41(6), 1677-1697. Morony, S., Kleitman, S., Lee, Y. P., Stankov, L. (2013). Self-efficacy, anxiety, self-concept and confidence as predictors of achievement in Confucian and European countries.International Journal of Educational Research,58, 79-96. Orth, U., Robins, R. W., Widaman, K. F. (2012). Life-span development of self-esteem and its effects on important life outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 12711288. Ortiz-Ordoez, J. C., Stoller, F., Remmele, B. (2015). Promoting Self-Confidence, Motivation and Sustainable Learning Skills in Basic Education.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,171, 982-986. Peng, A. C., Schaubroeck, J. M., Xie, J. L. (2015). When confidence comes and goes: How variation in self-efficacy moderates stressorstrain relationships.Journal of occupational health psychology,20(3), 359. Ruggieri, S., Abbate, C. S. (2013). Leadership style, self-sacrifice, and team identification.Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal,41(7), 1171-1178. Schnabel, D. B., Kelava, A., van de Vijver, F. J. (2016). The effects of using collaborative assessment with students going abroad: Intercultural competence development, self-understanding, self-confidence, and stages of change.Journal of College Student Development,57(1), 79-94. Seligman, M. E., Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014).Positive psychology: An introduction(pp. 279-298). Springer Netherlands. Shields, J., Brown, M., Kaine, S., Dolle-Samuel, C., North-Samardzic, A., McLean, P., ... Plimmer, G. (2015).Managing Employee Performance Reward: Concepts, Practices, Strategies. Cambridge University Press. Steinbauer, R., Renn, R. W., Taylor, R. R., Njoroge, P. K. (2014). Ethical leadership and followers moral judgment: The role of followers perceived accountability and self-leadership.Journal of Business Ethics,120(3), 381-392. Travers, C. J., Morisano, D., Locke, E. A. (2015). Self?reflection, growth goals, and academic outcomes: A qualitative study.British Journal of Educational Psychology,85(2), 224-241. Van der Kam, N. A., Janssen, O., van der Vegt, G. S., Stoker, J. I. (2014). The role of vertical conflict in the relationship between leader self-enhancement and leader performance.The Leadership Quarterly,25(2), 267-281.

Zero tolerance policing free essay sample

Zero-tolerance policing is a strong and authoritative form of policing with a main focus on minor crimes and public incivilities as public drunkenness, graffiti, beggary. Police discretion is removed and replaced by being tough on minor crimes and the use of coercive power. This is expected to cause a decline in major crimes as theft, burglary and violence. One of the main examples of zero-tolerance policing in practice is the policy of police commissioner William Bratton between 1991 and 1997. During that period crime rates declined largely, this was seen as a major evidence for the effectiveness of zero-tolerance policing. Although, other research has shown evidence for more, and maybe more important, explanations of the huge decline in crime. There was already a decline in homicide rates, the number of people using crack cocaine was declining, the drugs market was changing, intelligence-led policing was upcoming and there was an increase in community crime prevention (Bowling, 1999; Dixon, 1999). We will write a custom essay sample on Zero tolerance policing or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Considering this, we can question if zero-tolerance policing is as effective as claimed. To understand the effects of zero-tolerance policing, it is useful to look at it from a different point of view, a criminological point of view. There are many criminological theories which promote zero-tolerance policing, but also a lot of theories attacking it. In this research essay the main criminological theories will be considered resulting in a conclusion about zero-tolerance policing. The main question is: To what extend does zero-tolerance policing reduce crime from a criminological point of view? Broken windows and broken windows-revised The most important theory which provides a base for zero-tolerance policing is the broken windows theory of Wilson and Kelling (1982). This theory focuses on the consequences of minor crimes and deterioration of the environment. If the physical environment of a neighbourhood declines and if there are behavioural manifestations of disorder, it will give a message of disinterest. This will give criminals the feeling that the probability of detection is low (Bernasco Nieuwbeerta, 2003). Another consequence of the behavioural and physical disorder is that the people will have growing feelings of insecurity and fear. O ‘Brien and Wilson (2011) argue that  individuals determine whether a neighbourhood is safe or not by looking for signs of disorder as beggary or graffiti. The more incivilities they see, the less secure people will feel. As a consequence of the fear, there will be a decrease of informal social control. The low degree of social cohesion is expected to result in more crime, as again, criminals will get the feeling that risk of sanction is low (Bernasco Nieuwbeerta, 2003). A low degree of social cohesion can be shown by a lack of collectivity, a high residential mobility, loose relationships, little formal and informal control and ineffective social organisations (Lanier Henry, 2010a). In short, physical disorder and the presence of minor crimes will result in more crime (Sampson Raudenbush, 2004). Zero-tolerance policing is therefore seen a good strategy to prevent crime because it will be tough on the physical and behavioural disorder. Police officers have no discretion so no exceptions would be made. The broken windows theory seems convincing but when we take a closer look, there are some questionable points. Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) have revised the broken windows thesis and they believe that the minor crimes are not the cause of more serious crime but there is another, underlying factor that causes both minor crimes and major crimes. The underlying factor they mean is the degree of collectivity and cohesion in the neighbourhood. Disorder is seen as a manifestation of crime and thus shows that there is a low degree of social cohesion. Also the social disorganization theory of Shaw and McKay (cited in Lanier Henry, 2009a, pp. 190 – 251) argues that there will be more crime in neighbourhoods with a low degree of social cohesion. In short, this means that the minor crimes are not the main cause of more serious crimes, but it is the degree of social cohesion in a neighbourhood. Therefore zero-tolerance policing will not be effective because it does not focus on improving the social cohesion and the sense of collectivity in a neighbourhood. The policing strategy is especially focused on minor crimes and no exceptions can be made because the removal of the police discretion. This strict policy is more likely to create a hostile relationship between police and public than to create a bond with the society. According to the revised broken windows theory, policing strategies which are based on trust, communication and legitimacy are expected to be the most effective (Burke 1998; Dixon, 1999). The deterrent effect of zero-tolerance policing Another theory supporting zero-tolerance policing and its severe and tough policy is the rational choice theory. This theory is based on the idea that people are rational beings and they are free in the making of their decisions. They will weigh the costs and benefits and depending on the outcome they decide what to do. Crime is seen as an outcome of this rational choice whereby the benefits are bigger than the costs. The choice people make is strongly influenced by situational factors. To prevent crime it is therefore important to change the situational factors and give people the feeling that the costs are higher than the benefits (Lanier Henry, 2009b). Zero-tolerance policing can be seen as a good way to give people that feeling of being controlled. When the police tolerates no crimes at all people will easier decide to refrain from committing a crime because the expected risk of sanction is high. In addition to this theory, it is important to deepen the concept of deterrence. There are two forms of deterrence, general deterrence and specific deterrence, both with the treat of punishment as main principle. The former is about preventing the whole community from committing a crime by punishing a few of them as example. The latter focuses on preventing one particular person from committing a crime by punishing the person itself. Because the treat of punishment, the costs of committing a crime will be higher and therefore people will be less likely to break the law. As becomes clear the deterrence perspective is closely related to the rational choice theory. An important question is, under which conditions is the deterrent effect optimal? There are a few conditions which are mentioned by Jeremy Bentham (cited in Ashworth, 1992, pp. 53-61), namely certainty, celerity and severity. Certainty is seen as the most important one and severity as the least important one. It is difficult to say if zero-tolerance policing meets all the requirements to have a maximal deterrent effect. It is clear that people became more certain of being punished for minor crimes and since certainty is often seen as the main condition, a significant effect is expected. For example the stop and searches by police officers will re duce street criminality because the expectancy of getting caught gets higher (Innes, 1999). Also zero-tolerance policing meets the severity part since sanctions are higher. Proving the celerity part is more difficult, there is a chance that the punishment  process delays because of the overload of cases. On the other side the sanctioning process may be completed more quickly because of the high priority of it. In short, zero-tolerance policing seems to generate a deterrent effect which reduces criminality on the streets. However, the deterrent effect seems to have its limits and it is difficult to prove the effectivity of deterrence. At first it assumes that offenders think rationally, but mostly they do not think about the consequences while committing a crime. Furthermore the deterrence by the treat of punishment has certainly not the biggest influence on the offender, other things like family are often found more important. Also, the deterrent effect has often got a small reach because not everyone in the society gets to know which sanctions are given (Ashworth, 1992). So, we can ask ourselves how effective zero-tolerance policing will be in practice because the effectiveness of deterrence is questionable. It is also very important to keep other side effects in mind, as I mentioned before, the rational choice theory assumes that tough policy and a high level of control can deter people from committing a crime. However, a high level of control will not always have a good influence on the public. The negative effects of tough policing can be found in the consequences of the large number of stop and searches in the UK. Each time someone is stopped and searched without a justifiable reason, it damages the public confidence and its respect for the police. Further, the use of the stop and searches often turns out to be disproportionate because they usually focuses on poor areas. Some ethnic minorities are more likely to live in this poor areas which holds that they are more often targeted by stop and searches. Inequalities like this can cause violence and riots, for example the riots in the UK in 2011. Young people felt anger against the police and the disproportionate use of stop and searches triggered them to start a riot (Bowling, 2008). Legitimacy and communication As becomes clear from the example of the UK riots in 2011, it is really important for the police to be viewed as legitimate, trustable and to be able to communicate with the civilians. Legitimate policing is not just more popular but it is also more effective in reducing crime, because the public is more willing to provide information and more willing to abide the law  (Sherman, 1997). Thus, the importance of this criteria should not be underestimated. To what extent does zero-policing meet this requirements? Many research has shown that zero-tolerance policing declines the legitimacy of the police (Burke, 1998; Dixon, 1999). This is caused by the military, aggressive style of the strategy which creates a growing gap between the public and the police. It seems that marginalized groups are often targeted and crime of the powerful is largely ignored. This unequal and often disproportionate policing is one of the main causes of the growing distrust in the police and the gap I mentioned. As a result of this gap, there will be a decline in information flows from the civilians to the police which reduces the effectiveness of the police since information is necessary fighting crime. Another problem caused by the gap is the reluctance of civilians to report crime to the police. This will make it more difficult for the police to response effectively on crime. When trust in the police is decreasing and the information flow is declining, police officers have to find other ways to get information about crime and the society. Therefore, there is a growing likelihood that police officers will make use of stereotypes which results in the enforcement of police targeting some specific areas due to prejudices and racial profiling. As becomes clear, it is a vicious circle which produces a decline in legitimacy and a growing gap between policy and public. From this point of view, the effects of zero-tolerance policing are not very positive. Another cause of declining legitimacy is the growth of police aggression and brutality, because police officers are conforming into their roles of being tough and strict (Burke, 1998). The Brixton Riots in South-Londen are a good example of the consequences of a weakening relationship between the police and the public and a growing distrust in the police organization. Lord Scarman wrote a report about the riots in 1981 (cited in Burke, 1998, pp. 666-682) saying that the aggressive form of policing and the mistrust in the police were the cause of the riots. The main recommendation in the report was the importance of a good collaboration between the police and the public in preventing and fighting crime. Zero-tolerance policing is a strategy that weakens the relationship between police and civilians and is thus expected not to have a positive effect in reducing crime. The labeling effect Zero-tolerance policing can have more negative effects which are not mentioned before. One of the side effects is caused by the unequal policing that especially targets marginalized groups. This targeting of marginalized groups can start a process of labeling and self fulfilling prophecy. The police is very important in identifying people, thus a negative label or stigma given by the police can lead to a negative self-image in the stigmatized group. This image can have such a big impact on people, that the marginalized people will adapt their behavior to their new image. So, the prophecy of criminality fulfills itself as a consequence of the labeling process. Research has shown that the labeling process has the biggest impact after being incarcerated. Since zero-tolerance policing can be really tough, especially on some marginalized groups, there is a chance that the labeling process will be initiated. Also, there is much evidence that the incarceration rates will increase if zero-tolerance policing is practiced (Jussim et al. 2000). Conclusion The effects of zero-tolerance policing cannot simply be labelled positive or negative. In practice it seemed to have a huge impact shown by declining crime rates in New York between 1991 and 1997. However, when we take a closer look, the declining crime rates are more likely to be caused by other factors. Many criminological theories do suggestions about the effectiveness of zero-tolerance policing, some positive and some negative. The main question that is answered in this paper is: to what extend does zero-tolerance policing reduce crime, from a criminological point of view? The broken windows theory provided evidence for a high effectiveness of the strategy, but the revise of this theory highlighted an underlying explanation of both minor and major crimes. The rational choice theory argues that zero-tolerance policing does have an effect because of the high deterrent effect. However, this deterrence is never proven and zero-tolerance policing can, on the other side, cause violence and riots as the UK Riots in 2011. As becomes clear, zero-tolerance policing does not strengthen the relationship between the police and the public. Worsening communication and declining legitimacy are caused by disproportionate and  aggressive policy. This will not only cause a decline in information flow, but it will also cause a decreasing willingness to abide the law. Another side effect of zero-tolerance policing is shown by the labeling theory which argues that being tough on some specific groups can cause a negative self-image which can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. According to this criminological theories zero-tolerance policing will have more negative effects than positive effects. A better way of dealing with crime is to build a relationship with the community and to gain trust and legitimacy. A flexible and cooperative approach will make it possible to rebuild public trust and to strengthen relationships between police and public, in the end this will make our community safer.

Boston Beer Company Essay Example

Boston Beer Company Essay Example Boston Beer Company Paper Boston Beer Company Paper To value Boston Beer Company using comparable companies, we have decided to look at two companies that are in the same industry as BBC and have recently gone public: Petes Brewery Company and Redhook Ale Brewery. Operation Structure Both Petes and BBC are contract brewers which allow them to take advantage from larger brewers excess capacity. Low transportation cost and overhead cost has always been the competitive advantages for contract brewers; at the same time, both companies have invested intensively in marketing and promotion. Unlike BBC and Petes Brewing Company, Redhook Ale Brewery owned and operated its own breweries. In addition, Redhook also established a strategic alliance with the biggest brewery company, Anheuser-Busch. Redhook is selling its beer through A-Bs powerful distribution network instead of investing in marketing and promotions. Obviously, Redhook and BBC have positioned themselves differently in the craft beer industry. Therefore, out of the two companies in craft beer industry that have gone public, we believe Petes Brewery Company will be a better comparable for BBC valuation than Redhook. Value-Drivers Due to consumers sophisticated tastes, specialty beers are much more welcomed than before. The craft beer industry has been growing intensively since 1990. BBC and Petes have experienced compound annual sales growth rate of 109% and 57%, respectively. We believe the value-driver for contract brewers are mainly brand identification and product quality. Both Petes and BBC have invested intensively in marketing and product distribution. These two factors have directly contributed to the increase in Net Sales for Petes and BBC. In addition, because contract brewing have greater manufacturing flexibility, it allows companies to incur lower capital and overhead cost, hence higher gross margin. We have adjusted both P/E and P/B ratios respect to IPO price. Since P/B was originally calculated using shareholders equity as of September 30, 1995. P/E was calculated based on P/B and annualized 3rd quarter ROEs which are 129. 3% and 8. 6% for Petes Brewing and Redhook, respectively. The adjusted P/E and P/B ratios turnout to be smaller than P/E and P/B dated on 11/20/1995, which is reasonable because IPO prices was much lower than the stock prices on 11/20/1995. From the table above, the enterprise value has a range from $418 million to $839 million. We believe the major value driver for both Boston Beer Company and Petes Brewing is Sales; therefore, we decided to use EV/Net Sales and EV/Gross Profit as our major valuation multiples. The EV for Boston Beer Company is approximately $430,280. 185. When we use multiple valuations, we have assumed that the capital structure for Petes and BBC is the same, which is reasonable because they are both contract brewers. They dont have their own brewery and their operation margins are similar. One potential problem arises after Petes gone public is change in its operating strategy. After Petes went public, company has invested all the IPO proceeds in constructing its own brewery in California. The capital structure for Petes could change due to this major investing in capital. Based on the enterprise values computed using DCF, APV and comparable multiples, we can calculate the IPO price by subtracting the total long-term debt from the enterprise value and dividing this difference by the number of common shares to be outstanding after initial public offering. A total long-term debt of $1,900,000 can be found from the long-term debt schedule in Exhibit 5 of the case, and the number of common shares to be outstanding after initial public offering on the first page of Exhibit 5 (Case) is 19,182,119. Consequently, the IPO prices determined by DCF, APV and comparable multiples are $13. 41, $11. 51(in base scenario) and $22. 43, respectively. DCF makes too many skeptical assumptions that are difficult to confirm. First, the terminal growth rate is hard to estimate, because the forecast growth rate of 31% from 1996 to 2000 is unlikely to sustain, so the assumption that the perpetual growth rate will be 7. 0% is largely by faith. Second, the capital structure of the company may not be consistent indefinitely, as a reduction of 10% in D/E ratio from 1994 to 1995 is evident. Several forecast accounting items are based on assumptions as well. Lastly, the beta comes from an educated guess, so the cost of equity used in WACC may not be accurate. APV shares many common assumptions as the DCF, such as the terminal growth rate and beta, but it is not sensitive to changing capital structure. Comparable multiples have the advantage of using companies from the same industry that just went public as benchmarks. However, Petes Brewing Company and Redhook Ale Brewery differ from Boston Beer Company in sales size, growth rate, and strategy. Boston Beer Companys annual sales exceed the other two by a large margin, and the growth rates of the three companies have significant differences. From a strategic standpoint, Redhook Ale Brewery has its own production line, Boston Beer Company insist on remaining a contract brewing, and Petes Brewing Company plans to use the proceeds from its recent IPO to construct a brewery of its own. Moreover, craft beer industry itself relies on proprietary recipe as a sales strength, which differs among different companies. On top of that, too few available comparable companies may result in an estimate that is not very reliable, as only Petes Brewing Company is used as a comparable company. Since using multiples is too sensitive to unique events and only one comparable company is available, DCF and APV will be more reliable methods to determine the IPO price than comparable multiples valuations. Moreover, APV is more flexible than both DCF and multiples and it can value BBC more precisely, because it doesnt have the D/E constraint. APV can be used to valuate company that have unstable D/E over time, which in this case is suitable for valuating Boston Beer Company. Therefore the IPO price should be set in the range of $7. 53 to $21. 694 for Boston Beer Company. The craft beer industry as a whole is overpriced, because the current rapid growth is not sustainable and numerous competitors are emerging. The growth assumptions made by analysts may be wrong, so investors may mistakenly believe that the craft beer industry may continue fast growth for the next five years. The craft beer industry is considered correctly priced at high P/E multiple only if the craft beer industry as a whole can experience such high growth rate for a long time, as in the early 1990s. However, the growth forecast contains a number of forward looking statements and may not be true. Also, the growth rate of 40% in craft beer industry is very unlikely to be sustainable indefinitely. The beer industry as a whole had experienced a stagnant growth of 0. 1% from 1991-1995, and analysts predicted no growth in future. If the industry as a whole is experiencing zero growth, growth of one firm actually means contraction of another firm. We see no evidence from this case that craft beer industry is superior or has competitive advantage over major producers or second tier producers in long term. For instance, major and second tier player has more financial resource available. It will be very hard for small firms to grab away the customers from large firms in long term. Just like a zero-sum game, the growth may finally disappear and the market reaches saturation. The market may be too optimistic for the future of the craft beer industry. Also, the market beliefs fail to consider the factors of competition. The rapid growth of existing craft beer companies spurred the founding of over 600 specialty beer companies. Since so many competitors emerged in such industries, it is possible that the competitors may compete away the profits in future, making the industry as a whole unattractive, dragging down the price or raising the cost. This potential risk may be and indicator that the industry is overpriced.

Causes of Mass Wasting and Landslides

Causes of Mass Wasting and Landslides Mass wasting, sometimes called mass movement, is the downward movement by gravity of rock, regolith (loose, weathered rock) and/or soil on the sloped top layers of the Earth’s surface. It is a significant part of the process of erosion because it moves material from high elevations to lower elevations. It can be triggered by natural events like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and flooding, but gravity is its driving force. Although gravity is the driving force of mass wasting, it is impacted mainly by the slope material’s strength and cohesiveness as well as the amount of friction acting on the material. If friction, cohesion, and strength (collectively known as the resisting forces) are high in a given area, mass wasting is less likely to occur because the gravitational force does not exceed the resisting force. The angle of repose also plays a role in whether a slope will fail or not. This is the maximum angle at which loose material becomes stable, usually 25Â °-40Â °, and is caused by a balance between gravity and the resisting force. If, for example, a slope is extremely steep and the gravitational force is greater than that of the resisting force, the angle of repose has not been met and the slope is likely to fail. The point at which mass movement does occur is called the shear-failure point. Types of Mass Wasting Once the force of gravity on a mass of rock or soil reaches the shear-failure point, it can fall, slide, flow or creep down a slope. These are the four types of mass wasting and are determined by the speed of the material’s movement downslope as well as the amount of moisture found in the material. Falls and Avalanches The first type of mass wasting is a rockfall or avalanche. A rockfall is a large amount of rock that falls independently from a slope or cliff and forms an irregular pile of rock, called a talus slope, at the base of the slope. Rockfalls are fast moving, dry types of mass movements. An avalanche, also called a debris avalanche, is a mass of falling rock, but also includes soil and other debris. Like a rockfall, an avalanche moves quickly but because of the presence of soil and debris, they are sometimes moister than a rockfall. Landslides Landslides are another type of mass wasting. They are sudden, fast movements of a cohesive mass of soil, rock or regolith. Landslides occur in two types- the first of which is a translational slide. These involve movement along a flat surface parallel to the angle of the slope in a stepped-liked pattern, with no rotation. The second type of landslide is called a rotational slide and is the movement of surface material along a concave surface. Both types of landslides can be moist, but they are not normally saturated with water. Flow Flows, like rockfalls and landslides, are fast moving types of mass wasting. They are different however because the material within them is normally saturated with moisture. Mudflows, for example, are a type of flow that can occur quickly after heavy precipitation saturates a surface. Earthflows are another type of flow that occur in this category, but unlike mudflows, they are not usually saturated with moisture and move somewhat slower. Creep The final and slowest moving type of mass wasting is called soil creep. These are gradual but persistent movements of dry surface soil. In this type of movement, soil particles are lifted and moved by cycles of moistness and dryness, temperature variations and grazing livestock. Freeze and thaw cycles in soil moisture also contribute to creep through frost heaving. When soil moisture freezes, it causes soil particles to expand out. When it melts though, the soil particles move back down vertically, causing the slope to become unstable. Mass Wasting and Permafrost In addition to falls, landslides, flows and creep, mass wasting processes also contribute to the erosion of landscapes in areas prone to permafrost. Because drainage is often poor in these areas, moisture collects in soil. During the winter, this moisture freezes, causing ground ice to develop. In the summer, the ground ice thaws and saturates the soil. Once saturated, the layer of soil then flows as a mass from higher elevations to lower elevations, through a mass wasting process called solifluction. Humans and Mass Wasting Although most mass wasting processes occur via natural phenomena like earthquakes, human activities like surface mining or the building of a highway or shopping malls can also contribute to mass wasting. Human-induced mass wasting is called scarification and can have the same impacts on a landscape as natural occurrences. Whether human-induced or natural though, mass wasting plays a significant role on the erosion landscapes all over the world and different mass wasting events have caused damage in cities as well. On March 27, 1964, for example, an earthquake measuring a magnitude of 9.2 near Anchorage, Alaska caused almost 100 mass wasting events like landslides and debris avalanches throughout the state that impacted cities as well as more remote, rural regions. Today, scientists use their knowledge of local geology and provide extensive monitoring of ground movement to better plan cities and aid in reducing the impacts of mass wasting in populated areas.

Risk Management in Logistics Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Risk Management in Logistics - Research Proposal Example Kathleen DesMarteau (2005) recognizes the following key points as being a component of the risks and logistics management, which function as internal and external risks: This project is to examine risk management in logistics technology as it relates to the business process of the automotive industry with the goal to produce a model for risk management. The project is descriptive in nature. It seeks to quantify the types of risks manufacturing management has experiences and models used to develop resolutions. This will be accomplished using experimental simulation models. The topic of this research proposal is to explore risk management strategies and options for logistics support technology within the automotive industry. Risk management strategy is an important concept that allows a business operating within an industry to explore its research, development, and product release stages to reduce loss in operational and financial capacities. Logistics support technology is important for the automotive industry to maintain supply and meet demand. The automotive industry was chosen for this research proposal because it has multiple journals, magazines, corporate financial and stock information as well as strategy easily available to the public. Therefore, this research proposal has three main aims. ... What are the impacts of risk management on the logistics supply technologies within the automotive industry Topic Aims and Objectives The topic of this research proposal is to explore risk management strategies and options for logistics support technology within the automotive industry. Risk management strategy is an important concept that allows a business operating within an industry to explore its research, development, and product release stages to reduce loss in operational and financial capacities. Logistics support technology is important for the automotive industry to maintain supply and meet demand. The automotive industry was chosen for this research proposal because it has multiple journals, magazines, corporate financial and stock information as well as strategy easily available to the public. Therefore, this research proposal has three main aims. The literature review will explore risk management, logistics support technology and the implications of these within the automotive industry. This will allow for a comprehensive look at the overall risk and product strategies employed by the automotive industry in general. The research methodology will have the objective of narrowing risk management strategy based on major manufacturing facilities. This will include international, national, and corporate stakeholder risk management. The second objective of the research is to describe logistics support technology including financial and technological information (as cost and return on investment) based on the major manufacturer's publicized information available from journals and corporate websites. The final objective of the research is to create a standardized model of risk management in logistics support technology using this information.

Diversity Leadership - No African-Americans Here Case Study

Diversity Leadership - No African-Americans Here - Case Study Example Beliefs, with regards to an organization, are the plans based on the values that will see the organization attain its visions. Attitudes, in an organization, are the positive and negative thoughts of business proceedings that people have (Thomas, 1991). Finally, values are the issues that organizations put first when forming a basis of their ethical actions. Culture can be defined as a pattern of shared assumptions that an organization learns as it deals with its daily issues of internal integration and external adaptation, which has worked well enough to be perceived as valid. Therefore, culture refers to the correct way of thinking, perceiving and feeling with regards to organizational issues (Hofmann & Nelson, 2001). Climate, on the other hand, is the long-lasting quality of the overall organizational environment. This is in proportion to the experience of the workers, an influence of their behaviour, as well as the attributes of the organization (Johnson, 2009). In addition, climate can be referred to as the phenomenological, but external factors that take place around an organization, for instance, the way social environment is experienced by members of the organization. Cultural competence is at the centre of managing diversity within an organization (Dreachslin, 1996). Whereas a few individuals appear to be born with cultural competence, a great number of people have had to put consideration attempt into developing cultural competence. As perceived by many scholars, cultural diversity could have stern effects on an organization if not tackled correctly. However, the best results of an organization could be achieved if its workers portray cultural diversity. This is because cultural competence can motivate staff members or prevent them from being dissatisfied with the organization’s policies (Evans, 2003). Cultural competence attracts prospective workers, and this is beneficial to the organization.  Ã‚  

Higher education Essay Example for Free

Higher education Essay A Chronicle of Higher Education article states that only 34 percent of high-achieving high-school seniors in the bottom quarter of family income went to one of the 238 most selective colleges, compared with 78 percent of students from the top quarter (Markell). Certainly, these numbers show that students that come from low income families aren’t getting the opportunities that they deserve. With college costs going nowhere but up, students from low-income families face tough decisions. Some students choose to attend community college while some make the decision to take out additional loans. There are also those who choose to drop out because they can no longer sustain the cost of college. Those who don’t have the money to go to a selective college are often not reaching their full potential. Therefore, college cost should be lowered so that more people can have the opportunity to get higher education. Such a push is needed; firstly, due to the continuous rise in tuition, higher education is becoming less and less affordable for low-income students. According to the Journal of College Admission, from 1982 to 2007, college tuition and fees increased by 439 percent, while median family income increased by 147 percent. Last year, the net cost at four-year public universities amounted to 28 percent of median family income, while a four-year private college or university consumed 76 percent of median family income (Mahoney). These numbers show that college cost has risen at a rate that has consistently outpaced the median family income and also inflation. Patrick Callan, president of the National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education, states, â€Å"If we go on this way for another 25 years, we won’t have an affordable system of higher education†(Callan). Essentially, if college cost doesn’t stop increasing it will become unaffordable and many will choose not to get higher education. Furthermore, there are many students who aren’t getting the opportunity that they deserve because they are not able to afford it. At the most competitive colleges, only 14 percent of students come from the lower 50 percent of families by income (Perez-Pena). Some low-income students who study very hard cant reach the diploma or certificate. A New York Times article states, â€Å"While 2. 8 million students enroll in some form of higher education each year, most do not proceed straight through to graduation. Only one in five of those who enroll in two-year institutions earn an associate degree within three years, and only two in five of those who start four-year colleges complete their degrees within six years†(Lewin). College being outrageously expensive is one of the reasons students are not reaching their full potential. Access to higher education has become increasingly difficult for low income families, yet a college degree is more important than ever in today’s economy. Indeed, there’s no denying that college tuition and expenses aren’t cheap. In the 2011-12 academic year, the average net cost for a full-time student at an in-state public university was about $15,000 for tuition, fees, room, board, books and incidental expenses, according to the College Board (Clark). Four years of college costs about 60,000 dollars. Aside from tuition, college students also have to worry about the other expenses that come with being a college student. Those who don’t have enough to afford it are faced with tough decisions. According to a New York Times article, about 7 in 10 of the dropouts said they had no scholarship or loan aid. Among those who got degrees, only about four in 10 went without such aid (Perez-Pena). College students who come from low-income families are being forced to take out additional loans to afford college. Some students choose to attend community college while some make the decision to take out additional loans. There are also those who choose to drop out because they can no longer sustain the cost of college. Often times, students cannot afford the cost of living while completing a college education. Certainly, there are many reasons why students drop out of college, but the decision oftentimes has a lot to do with money. According to Public Agenda, a nonpartisan public policy research firm that conducted a telephone survey of more than 600 people ages 22 to 30 for the report, â€Å"Of students surveyed, 58 percent said they did not receive any financial help from their parents or relatives to pay tuition or fees, and 69 percent had no scholarships or financial aid† (Johnson). More than half of students are not being supported by their families or anyone else for that matter. Also, more than one-half of students are not receiving any type of scholarship or financial aid. The dropouts’ most popular solutions were allowing part-time students to qualify for financial aid, offering more courses on weekends and evenings, cutting costs and providing child care (Johnson). Most times, it’s just not attainable for a college student to afford college costs. Moreover, students who don’t have financial help from family or are not fortunate enough to get scholarships or grants are often forced work to pay for school. The New York Times states, â€Å"The top reason the dropouts gave for leaving college was that it was just too hard to support themselves and go to school at the same time. Balancing work and school was a bigger barrier than finding money for tuition, they said. In fact, more than a third of the dropouts said that even if they got a grant that covered their books and tuition, it would be hard to go back to school, given their work and family commitments† (Lewin). Essentially, low-income students are having to work while attending college. Many students find it difficult to find time to study, because they are too busy working part-time jobs in able to pay for their education and other necessities. Those students who are not able to balance school, work, and also other things often end up dropping out. A downturn in college tuition would definitely help those students who are in need of help financially. Ultimately, a decrease in college cost would greatly benefit the larger society. There will be more students who will be able to afford higher education. With this in mind, higher education will lead to better access to jobs with higher pay and the broadening of a college student’s social and mental horizons. College students will also no longer have to worry about being buried in debt after college. As Obama, the 44th president of the United States of America, states, â€Å"As a nation, our future ultimately depends on equipping students like you with the skills and education a 21st-century economy demands. If you have the opportunity to reach your potential and go as far as your talent and hard work will take you, that doesn’t just mean a higher-paying job or a shot at a middle-class life — it means a stronger economy for us all. Because if your generation prospers, we all prosper. And I’m counting on you to help us write the next great chapter in our American story† (Obama). In other words, Obama believes that higher education can lead people to success and that it is vital to the nation’s future. Lower college cost will lead to students reaching their potential. While it is true that a decrease in college tuition would just lead to students who are not meant for college wasting their time, there are many students who are actually academic material that cannot afford to get higher education. A study by the Hamilton Project at the Brookings Institution in Washington points out that half of Americans in the top fourth of the income distribution have a college degree. Among the poorest fourth of Americans, fewer than one in ten graduated from college (Porter). Higher education is turning into a privilege for the higher society. The rising cost of college is preventing low-income students from getting higher education. A decrease in college cost will give low-income students more options and it will benefit the larger society in the future. Ultimately, what is at stake here is that students who have the potential to succeed in college are not able to attend because they lack money. College has turned into a privilege for the higher society when it should be one’s right. Colleges need to be more accountable for making sure that their students graduate. Decreasing college cost will also decrease the number of students being in debt after finishing college. Higher education cost rising is causing low-income students to be locked out of higher education. Therefore, college cost should be lowered so that more students will have the opportunity to get higher education, especially those who lack money. Works Cited Clark, Kim. â€Å"How much does college actually cost? † cnn. com. CNN. Web. 24 November 2013. Johnson, Jenna. â€Å"Majority of college dropouts cite financial struggles as main cause. † The Washington Post. The Washington Post, 8 December 2009. Web. 24 November 2013. Lewin, Tamar. â€Å"College Dropouts Cite Low Money and High Stress. † New York Times. New York Times, 9 December 2009. Web. 24 November 2013. Mahoney, John L. Thoughts In Troubled Times. Journal Of College Admission 209 (2010): 4-6. Academic Search Complete. Web. 24 November 2013. Markell, Jack. How To Give Low-Income Students The Chance They Deserve. Chronicle Of Higher Education 60. 6 (2013): A27. Academic Search Complete. Web. 24 November 2013. Obama, Barack H. â€Å"President Obama on Early Childhood Education. † Remarks by the President on Early Childhood Education. Decatur Community Recreation Center, Decatur, Georgia. 14 February 2013. Perez-Pena, Richard. â€Å"Efforts to Recruit Poor Students Lag at Some Elite Colleges. † New York Times. New York Times, 30 July 2013. Web. 24 November 2013. Porter, Eduardo. â€Å"Dropping Out of College, and Paying the Price. † New York Times. New York Times, 25 June 2013. Web. 24 November 2013.

Dyslexia: Causes and Treatment :: Science Research Disorder Essays

Dyslexia: Causes and Treatment Works Cited Missing The learning disability dyslexia once perplexed scientists who now are beginning to make breakthrough discoveries into its causes. Dyslexia traditionally was vaguely defined as a difficulty in learning to read and write. In the past, dyslexics often were dismissed as lazy, not focused, or unintelligent. With these recent discoveries, scientists may be able to define much more specific disorders. Researchers now are finding out that people with dyslexia use specific brain regions that process written languages differently than those without the disorder. The specific brain regions which are involved, however, remain uncertain. With the knowledge that dyslexia results from differences in the language areas of the brain, it will be possible for researchers to help dyslexics better compensate for their conditions. Scientists also are coming closer to exactly pinpointing what causes those areas of the brain to act differently in dyslexics. Though which regions of the brain most central to dyslexia remain unresolved, technology has made headway to answer this question. Brain imaging, which is a technique of photographing the brain â€Å"in action,† indicates that dyslexics have higher levels of the chemical lactate in certain regions of the brain during language and sound processing. According to neurophysicist and brain specialist, Todd Richards, who heads a research team at the University of Washington, the regions of the brain that show high levels of chemical lactate are mostly in the left anterior quadrant of the brain that includes: the Left Frontal Cortex, Broca’s area, the Inferior Frontal Gyrus, the Middle Frontal Gyrus, and the Striatum (Richards). Dyslexics have to expend more brain energy in these regions to accomplish the same tasks as non-dyslexics, which results in higher levels of chemical lactate. Research also shows that dyslexics have less activity in the angular gyrus (AG) than those without the disability. â€Å"[T]he angular gyrus translates the mass of words and letters we encounter in day-to-day life into language† (Dyslexia par. 8). The AG is located towards the back of the brain and is a key component in normal reading. Many researchers believe that this part of the brain does not function normally in dyslexics. Some scientists are speculating that dyslexics may use certain areas of the brain inadequately, compensating for this by disproportionately using other areas of the brain.

Curriculum Development for Inclusive Practice Essay

Introduction: In education, the word â€Å"curriculum† is not new since the organisations of schooling and further education have long been associated with the idea of a curriculum. Before starting the assignment, we would like to find out what it means by â€Å"curriculum† and what is â€Å"curriculum development for inclusive practice†. By definition, in formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their contents offered at an educational institution. John Kerr defined â€Å"curriculum† and later taken up by Vic Kelly in his standard work on the subject as, â€Å"All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school.† (quoted in Kelly 1983; also, Kelly 1999). There are four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice: 1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted 2. Curriculum as product, i.e. an attempt to achieve certain ends in students 3. Curriculum as process 4. Curriculum as praxis We will express the later three ways in this assignment. These ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice can be also described in three disciplines: the theoretical, the productive and the practical. These are illustrated as the map below: (Source: infed.org/ Curriculum theory and practice.) Inclusive curriculum refers to the process of developing and designing a programme of study to limit the barriers that students may face in accessing the curriculum. Indeed, the curriculum created by the educational institution should aim to provide opportunities for all students to learn and to achieve. Also the curriculum should aim to promote students’ spiritual, moral, social and cultural development, to establish an entitlement and to establish standards. In this assignment, we will discuss how different theories, principle and models of curriculum have been developed and applied in a learning environment in order to achieve these. Particular in this essay, we will focus on the dental nurse training  environment where all trainee dental nurses are expected to meet standard set by General Dental Council (GDC) at the end of training regardless their background and entry levels. Analyse and discuss the influence of theories, principles and models of curriculum design with a view to promoting inclusive learning. Curriculum as product Curriculum as product model is also known as behavioural objectives model, as it heavily depends on the settings of behavioural objectives and it is interested in the product of curriculum. It is the dominant model of describing and managing today’s education. Because in modern education system throughout different stages and qualifications, certain standards or objectives are set and education institutions aim to draw up a plan to achieve these objectives and create methods in response to the plan. Outcomes reflecting on students’ learning abilities as well as efficiency of these plans and methods will be measured. From above, there are four fundamental questions for education practitioners: 1. What are the aims and objectives of curriculum? 2. Which plan and methods meet these aims and objectives? 3. How can these plans and methods be practiced? 4. How can the extent to these plans and methods be evaluated? (Adapted by Tyler 1949) Curriculum as product is strongly supported by the behaviourist model which believes knowledge is finite and learning supposes to be overt, observable and measurable. It also believes the statements of objectives of the education institution should be a statement of changes occurred to students. (Tyler 1949:44) Regarding to stimulation of positive changes to students, few major theorists have contributed to the behaviourist theory. Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) believed learning was a process of linking physical and mental events in various combinations. Also, learning is enhanced when bonds are made between the stimulus and the response. B F Skinner (1904-1990) innovated in â€Å"operant conditioning† and expanded on Thorndike’s work on reinforcement of learning. In Skinner’s view, positive reinforcement strengthens behaviour by applying some encouraging events. Oppositely, negative reinforcement improves behaviour by removing some  aversive events. Advantages of curriculum as product model include: it makes assessment more precise; it helps to select and structure teaching plan; it makes teachers aware of different types and levels of learning involved in particular subjects and it guides teachers and students on skills to be gained. However, some criticisms are also raised, such as: it discourages teacher’s and student’s creativity; the curriculum is too subject and exam bound and some specific behaviours are appropriate for affective domain. Curriculum as process: Comparing to curriculum as product which is focusing on the outcomes, curriculum as process focuses on teacher and student activities. Indeed, it emphasis on means rather than ends. Rather than teachers set up objects and draw up teaching plans and methods, students have part in deciding nature of learning activities and therefore it is a more individualised atmosphere and different learning experience. Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) produced one of the best-known explorations of a process model of curriculum theory and practice. He defined curriculum as: ‘an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice.’ Curriculum as process is supported by humanist model which concentrate upon the development of the student’s self-concept. It believes learning is a progress towards the pinnacle of self-development. In the other words, if students feel good about themselves and the concept of learning, it is a good start. There are a few theorists who contributed in the humanistic theory such as Alexander Sutherland Neill (1883-1973), Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). The most significant theorist among these is Maslow, who invented hierarchy of ‘basic needs’ and term ‘Self-actualisation’. The main advantages of curriculum as process model are: it emphasis on active roles of teachers and learners as well as learning skills. It believes on certain activities as important in themselves and for ‘life’. However, people also criticize that it neglect considerations of appropriate content and it is difficult to apply approaches in some areas. Curriculum as Praxis Curriculum as praxis is a development of the process model. Comparing to  curriculum as process which is driven by general principles and emphasises on judgement and meaning making, curriculum as praxis makes an explicit commitment to emancipation. So basically, teachers need to have a proposal for actions involving essential principles and features of the education encounter. They encourage students to build up conversations and interactions between each other in the situation. These actions lead to a form of commitment to learning.  Teachers continually evaluate this process and provide a view of outcomes according to this. Therefore through this approach, the curriculum as praxis itself develops through a dynamic interaction of action and reflection. Similar to curriculum as process, the curriculum also emphasises on the development of student’s ‘self- actualisation’. Therefore it is also supported by the humanistic model. Describe, critically analyse and reflect on which factors might affect curriculum design and how the curriculum can differ according to the context in which it is provided. Also describe and discuss the impact some of these factors have on your own specialism. As a dental nurse tutor, my students have following characteristics: firstly they are adult learners; secondly they have different academic and cultural backgrounds as well as learning abilities; they have an initial interest in the subject and a clear objective and motivation of getting qualification and becoming a dental nurse.Upon above characteristics of students, my role has following aims: to create an inclusive learning environment for all my students; to follow guidance from General Dental Council (GDC) and draw up teaching plans according to the guidance; to help students reach GDC standard, pass theoretical assessments and gain GDC registration; to provide great exposure of the practical side of training to students a nd make sure student reach GDC standard on practical/hand-on skills enabling them to gain registration. From above, it is not hard to see that the overall objective of getting GDC qualifications cannot be achieved by applying single curriculum design and model during my teaching. In fact, it requires a combination of curriculum as product, as process and as praxis as well as other auxiliary curriculums such as the hidden curriculum. Curriculum as product: GDC requires a certain theoretical assessment standard for trainee dental  nurses to reach. Students need to sit GDC exams for all the theoretical units they have attended. This has become the crucial objective for dental nurse tutors. In order to achieve this, we have created a practical plan and various methods in teaching. Firstly, classroom teaching has been arranged three times a week for two hours per class. Contents of teaching and learning are strictly referenced to GDC publications and the classes are well organised and formatted. Secondly, regular mock assessments to students are applied in order to track trainee dental nurse’s progress and provide feedback to our teaching methods. In order students to carry on progressing towards GDC exams, certain forms of encouragements and punishments have been applied which reflects on Skinner’s ‘Reinforcement’ in Behaviourist model. For example, students with top exam scores are offered scholarships and students with failed grades are required to attend extra classes and re-sit for exams. Curriculum as products model has provided a clear path for dental nurse tutors and trainee nurses to process towards objectives. However, it has also led some problems. Once trainee nurses are pushed too much towards exams and grades, they may lose enthusiasm and motivation. Also, as students are with uneven learning background and ability, trainee nurses who are lack of certain skills or previous knowledge may find reaching GDC standard particularly challenging. Here comes the concept of â€Å"providing an inclusive practice†, we will discuss this later in â€Å"The hidden curriculum†. Curriculum as process: As well as ensuring trainee nurses to pass GDC exams, they are also required to achieve strong practical skills and pass practical assessments. The practical side of training are carried out in trainee dental nurse’s work placements, usually within hospital’s dental department, a local NHS dental practice or a private dental clinic. After learning fundamental theories of dental knowledge, trainee nurses will work along with senior dental nurses and dentist to observe and practice skills at real work place. Trainee dental nurses usually spend at least half of their entire training in work placements and the placement is well organised by both dental tutors and head nurse in dental practice. Trainee nurses’ learning progress is observed mainly by senior nurses and dentists at work placement, a report will be sent back to dental tutors regularly. Dental tutors also visit trainee  dental nurses’ work place on a regular basis to observe and assess on student’s progress. Curriculum as process within dental nurse training has closely followed the Humanistic model, especially Maslow’s hierarchy of ‘basic needs’. Trainee dental nurses have to gain fundamental knowledge of dentistry in order them to gain security once putting knowledge into practice. When they feel secured, they are more enthusiastic and motivated to achieve the next level and eventually gain ‘self- actualisation’. Curriculum as paxis: As mentioned in curriculum as process, dental nurse training values entire journey of student’s progress rather than the final exams. Trainee dental nurses are observed and assessed throughout their training in all different aspects. Apart from the practical skills, dental tutors are also aware of trainee nurses’ oral/ communication skills, writing skills, co-ordinating/ interacting skills with colleagues and patients as well as professional manner as a medical staff. All of these factors are observed and accessed via multiple tunnels throughout classroom and work placement, such as dental nurse tutors, senior nurses and dentists, feedbacks from fellow trainee nurses and patients. As trainee nurses get more and more skilled in handling patients and communicating with fellow colleagues, they will find work get smoother and therefore they will gain more confidence and motivation in their job. This has reflected again on the humanistic model and Maslow’s hierarchy o f ‘basic needs’. Development of inclusive practice and the hidden curriculum Regarding the characteristics of adult learning, although trainee nurses are more purposeful in learning and show more active participation, their previous knowledge background and learning ability may vary. In order to get all the students on the same line and help them to achieve GDC qualification, we have applied the hidden curriculum to achieve an inclusive teaching and learning environment for the trainee nurses. The hidden curriculum means all that is learnt during school/college activities that is not designated part of official curriculum, such as one-to-one class for individuals, extra assessments and mock exams. Although learning associated with the hidden curriculum is often considered in a negative way, we find  this is a suggestive method for adult learners. For trainee dental nurses who are lack of language skills or basic medical knowledge, we arrange occasional individual class for them with one of our dental tutors. This is usually carried out in student’s and dental tutor’s spared time. As some trainee dental nurses are desperate in improving their essential skills, they feel rather welcome to the extra tuition and are willing to put in extra efforts. For trainee nurses who did not achieve satisfactory results in their mock exams before final GDC exams, we also occasional organise extra class for them and offer them opportunity to re-sit the mock exams. By carrying out occasional hidden curriculum, trainee nurses with less skill improve so that dental tutors are able to prepare them at the same level for GDC exams. This has helped us I developing inclusive practice within our institution in a different perspective.

American Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is a form of administration wherein the government is divided into bureaus or different departments which are headed by non-elected officials. This administration is characterized by a highly hierarchal distribution of authority amongst the offices and is guided by rigidly fixed procedures and rules.Max Weber listed characteristics of modern bureaucracies: (1) the functions of the bodies are rigidly fixed by laws; (2) hierarchal and integrated into a chain of command; (3) administrative policies are properly documented; (4) services require apprenticeship; (5) functions entail full devotion to office; and (6) access to this system is also an access to technology, jurisprudence commercial science and administrative science.The development of the American Bureaucracy is an end result of the division of classes into societies, wherein in the function serves to secure the acceptance of such orders. Thus, according to Lefort, bureaucracy is normally viewed as service of a domi nant class within a specific framework to assure preservation of status for most for the dominant class. Moreover, American bureaucracy is seen to have several negative implications on its government form. Citizens are often concerned on the manner at which principles are being attached to certain issues.It is argued that at most times, people face the imminent danger of being placed at a stand wherein the public good is disregarded due to conflicts from rival parties, and that when the rule of justice and rights of minor party have become overpowered by the force of interested and overbearing majority (Madison, 1787). Thus, it is often said that American bureaucracy has encouraged the splitting of administration into factions, which in turn is an effect of unsteadiness and injustices within the system.These injustices are brought by the government’s influential impact on making judgment towards property sentiments, which at large differ based on the social class – whe rein the inequality to acquire property is possible to equate based on social standing (Madison, 1787). Consequently, the manner of representation in the republic is also in question. The process at which a representative or representatives are elected is based on a certain limited number.Hence it will follow that proportionality of the election of officers for certain republic may render them the greater or lesser probability of representation for the emancipation of the republic that they represent (Madison, 1787). On the other hand, there are also positive views attributed in the establishment of American bureaucracy. The establishment of bureaucracy in US has pushed separate departments to become independent and to act according to their own will.This shall also follow that the members of this department will develop their own sense of authority and responsibility over their areas. But nonetheless, the idea of independence for the established departments has remained untrue so f ar. The independence they posses is only minimal and nominal, because the appointments that are taking place within the system and the process by which orders are done, come strictly from the rigidness of orders from higher authorities.Another thing, this kind of system is highly susceptible to biases and administration corruption, since the appointments made are delivered by higher officials and consequently the works to be done should ought to be addressed to the authority who conferred it to them (Madison 1788). Though the distribution of power amongst these departments is done in such a way that each department serves as checks and balance for the other departments, it still occurs that this distribution of authority, instead of being vigilant to the interest of the public, has rather became a cover up for private interest.And this rhetoric of division of powers which aims to distribute powers equally among different departments couldn’t be in any way possible because it is convenient and not rational to create an equal distribution of power to defend each of their own departments. However, the constitution for the American bureaucracy claims two distinct responsibilities that render this kind of administration rational and beneficial to the society. First, in contrast to bureaucracy, a single republic owes concentration of powers towards one entity, which shall serve as the lone guard against power abuse.On the other hand, in a bureaucratic state, the power is divided between two bodies, thus creating a double security against usurpation of powers by officials. Second, this division makes the interests of the republic more guarded in such a way that the first division guards the society against oppression that may be caused by the other division. Therefore, the two separate departments of the government serve as checks and balance between them (Madison 1788). Thus, bureaucracy does not necessarily entail influence on political and economic regime.N either that its organization has relation to power, rather, bureaucracy administers itself by splitting its powers into divergence (Lefort, 2007) Moreover, the current trend of American bureaucracy is being put into test. The organization of new departments has sprung from the current US government administration, all geared towards increasing their security, customs, immigration and emergency management. According to reports, this reorganization in the US government shall become the most ambitious US reorganization since 1947.The formation of the new Department of Homeland Security shall ideally and constitutionally become the guardian of Americans against terrorist attacks, immigration advocates, and business lobbyists. However, this shall also post a great challenge on coping from the changes that it will allow. The problem shall be rooted on the dilemma of balancing old and new traditions in such a way that this will not disrupt the functions that it is ought to serve for the go vernment and the society (Alden, 2002).Bureaucracy has served its purpose in the American government. Though it varies widely between the positive and the negative feedbacks that it has encountered over its practice, bureaucracy has indeed become an institution in the American government administration. Further, it has its process closely tied to the process of capitalist rationalization. It forms a type of social organization and establishes social strata and dictates a relationship among its members. References Alden, Edward. (22 November 2002) A Battle of American Bureaucracy.Financial Times. Retrieved November 15, 2007, from http://www. globalsecurity. org/org/news/2002/021122-secure01. htm Lefort, Claude. What is Bureaucracy? Retrieved November 15, 2007, from http://www. generation-online. org/h/fplefort. htm Madison, James. (1787 November 22) The Utility of the Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection. Daily Advertiser. Madison, James. (1788 February 6) T he Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments. Independent Journal.

STAT 1350, Quiz #4, Summer 2014Name ______________ Essays

STAT 1350, Quiz #4, Summer 2014Name ______________ Essays STAT 1350, Quiz #4, Summer 2014Name _______________________________________ 1. Confounding often defeats attempts to show that one variable causes changes in another variable. Confounding means that A) this was an observational study, so cause and effect conclusions are not possible. B) the effects of several variables are mixed up, so we cannot say which is causing the response. C) we don't know which is the response variable and which is the explanatory variable. D) we would get widely varied results if we repeated the study many times. Ans: B 2. Which of the following are the three principles of experimental design? A) Confound, Randomize, Small Samples B) Confound, Randomize, Large Samples C) Control, Randomize, Small Samples D) Control, Randomize, Large Samples Ans: D 3. The most important advantage of experiments over observational studies is A) experiments are usually easier to carry out. B) a well-designed experiment can give good evidence that the treatments actually cause the response. C) an experiment can compare two or more groups. D) we can use randomization to avoid bias in designing an experiment. E) we can study the relationship between two or more explanatory variables. Ans: B 4. A psychologist recently said that, "For relatively mild medical problems, the placebo effect will produce positive results in roughly two-thirds of patients." The placebo effect is A) the bias due to voluntary response in a sample. B) the effect of a dummy treatment on a patient. C) a violation of comparative experimentation. D) the effect of confounding in an observational study. Ans: B 5. To control for the power of suggestion when a subject takes an experimental drug, use A) a placebo. C) double blinding. B) blocking. D) probability sampling. Ans: A 6. The reason that block designs are sometimes used in experimentation is to A) prevent the placebo effect. B) allow double-blinding. C) reduce sampling variability. D) eliminate sampling variability. Ans: C 7. We say that the design of a study is biased if which of the following is true? A) We suspect racial or sexual prejudice. B) The study assigns subjects at random to a placebo. C) The study systematically favors certain outcomes. D) The study fails to use blocking. E) The study is double-blind. Ans: C 8. The basic ethical requirements for any study of human subjects are A) comparison, randomization, and replication. B) approval by a review board, informed consent, and confidentiality of data. C) subjects are anonymous, subjects are randomly chosen, and subjects cannot be harmed. D) data production, data analysis, and inference. Ans: B 9. The student-run newspaper asks students to visit a web page and respond to questions regarding a proposed tuition increase. Only responses to the questions are recorded. Summary statistics based on the survey responses are used in an article published the following week, and no one outside of the newspaper has access to the individual responses. The newspaper's survey is considered to be A) anonymous. B) confidential. C) both anonymous and confidential. D) neither anonymous nor confidential. Ans: C 10. A psychologist says that scores on a test for "authoritarian personality" can't be trusted because the test counts religious belief as authoritarian. The psychologist is attacking the test's A) validity. B) reliability. C) margin of error. D) confidence level. Ans: A 11. During a visit to the doctor, you are weighed on a very accurate scale. You are weighed five times and the five readings are essentially the same. When being weighed, you are wearing all of your clothes and a pair of hiking boots. As a measure of your weight without clothes, the reading on the scale is A) unbiased and reliable. D) biased and unreliable. B) unbiased and unreliable. E) biased and reliable. C) 95% accurate. Ans: E 12-13. A student's research shows that there were more suicides in 2010 than there were in 1910. He concludes that people were less likely to commit suicide in 1910 than in 2010. 12. Why is it not valid to use these two numbers to compare suicides in these two years? A) People were happier in 2010 than they were in 1910. B) The numbers were compiled by a student instead of by a professional researcher. C) The U.S. population increased substantially from 1910 to 2010. D) One shouldn't compare years that are so far apart. Ans: C 13. What would be a more appropriate or valid measure for this comparison? A) Compare the number of suicides in 1900 and 2000. B) Compare the suicide rates (percentages) for 1910 and 2010. C) Compare the number of suicides in those years, grouped by region. D) Compare the number of people who don't commit suicide